Tahmeed Ahmad, Ahmadiyya Archive and Research Centre
In the east of Damascus lies a mysterious white minaret: The “Minaret of Isa”. According to legend, this is where the Messiah will descend. Thus, Muslims have gathered here for centuries, eagerly anticipating the arrival of the promised one. Their city has been through countless epic wars, famines, and cataclysms. The white minaret still stands, for whenever it fell, the people would pick up the bricks and rebuild the 77-metre-tall minaret surrounded by the graves of heroes such as Salah ad-Din Ayyubi and his successors. Yet, as of now, over a millennium later, the Messiah has not appeared. The enigma surrounding this ancient site continues to captivate the imagination centuries on, blurring the lines between reality and myth.
Amidst the intertwining of fact and fiction, a scholar of Damascus finds the Messiah, albeit in written form.
Punjab: A religious challenge
If you look further “east of Damascus” than most would dare to look, you will find yourself in the City of Qadian. Here, amid Punjab, India lies the white minaret of Qadian, dubbed, Minaratul Masih. You might wonder what differentiates this minaret from the one in Damascus. The answer? Here the Messiah has descended! This is where our story begins.
The Pioneer is one of India’s oldest English-language daily newspapers, currently published from multiple locations, including Delhi. It is the second oldest English-language newspaper still in circulation in India. Notably, two Nobel laureates, Rudyard Kipling and Sir Winston Churchill served as staff members during their careers. (“The Pioneer: 150 Years and going strong”, www.communicationtoday.net)
One day, while reading The Pioneer I came across a full-page announcement titled “A Religious Challenge” by Hazrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmadas. The announcement proposed a religious conference similar to the one held in Chicago in 1893. The challenge was straightforward: the government should set a date, and all participants should present two types of evidence to support the truth of their respective religion.
- Firstly, they should show their religion to possess moral teachings more sublime than the teachings of all other religions and fitted to develop to perfection all the latent power of man’s soul.
- Secondly, they should prove that their religions are still in possession of that divine power which they claimed at the beginning.
One passage in the announcement read as such:
“Books treating of these subjects I have caused to be scattered broadcast in Arabia, Persia, Asia Minor and Egypt. That my books are well known and widely read in these countries is shown by the fact that several Caristian writers of Syria have not only referred to them but quoted passages from them.* Upon those grounds I can confidently assert that no other Mussalman family can show a parallel to this signal service rendered by me for the last twenty years.” (The Pioneer, 29 October 1899, p. 7)
My eyes eagerly followed the “northern star” to the bottom of the page where it read:
“*Christopher Jabara, a Christian writer of Damascus, refers to my book. The Hammat-ul-Bushra, on p. 44 of his work, The Khulasat-ul-Adyan. He also quotes six lines from my book and writes: ‘This is the work of an Indian learned man who is known throughout India.’ See Khulasat-ul-Adyan; p.44, [Lines] 14 to 21.” (The Pioneer, 29 October 1899, p. 7)
The Promised Messiahas provided such detailed information that I felt compelled to find the source. It is as if he is holding the very page being referred to in the footnote and like any of his followers, a page I too would want to be holding.
Damascus: Christopher Jabara
To start, let me specify that the name Christopher Jabara has been written with many different spellings. The spelling varies, and here they are: Khrīstūfūrūs Niqūlā Yūsif Khalīl Ibrāhīm Jabāra; Christophore Jibara; Christophorus Ǧabbāra; Christopher Jabāra; Christophoros Gibāra; Christopher Jabara; Christofory Jebara. (Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History, Vol. 18, p. 428)
However, I think using the spellings that passed the eyes of the Promised Messiahas, “Christopher Jabara”, is appropriate. I have provided the other spellings above for anyone who may want to research further.
Christopher Jabara, born in Damascus in 1835 and passing away in Cairo in 1901, was an Archimandrite in Eastern Christianity. This title originally referred to a superior abbot. Jabara was an Antiochian, which refers to a group of Greek Christians native to the Levant. In a speech at the World’s Parliament of Religions in 1893, he mentioned that Muslims killed both his teacher and brother, most likely during the Damascus massacre in 1860. (Neely’s history of the Parliament of religions and religious congresses at the World’s Columbian Exposition, p. 700)
While he was alive, he achieved many accomplishments and was known to be proficient in several languages. In 1865, he served as the deacon at the Greek Orthodox School in Mount Lebanon, where he translated Orthodox works from Greek and French into Arabic. He also held a position at the “Great Orthodox School” in Beirut. It was here that Jabara became acquainted with Mohammed Abduh, the grand mufti of Egypt. (Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History, Vol. 18, p. 429; Muḥammad ʿAbduh, p. 93)
Moscow: Unitarianism
From 1879 until the end of 1887, he was the in-charge of the Metochion in Moscow, an ecclesiastical embassy church within the Eastern Orthodox. Jabara said in 1893: “I have translated many theological books, and recently I have translated the New Testament into the Arabic language” (Neely’s history of the Parliament of religions and religious congresses at the World’s Columbian Exposition, p. 700)
During that period, Jabara was left by the church as he had adopted a different perspective that contradicted its teachings. He followed a form of Unitarianism, but he took it further by advocating for the unification of the three Abrahamic religions. A view that cost him everything.
“I assure you also that by the Koran we can understand the Gospel better, and without the Koran it is impossible to understand it correctly. It is for that I believe that God has preserved the Koran and also preserved Islam, because it has come to correct the doctrines and dogmas of the Christians. There is no difference in the books themselves-the Gospel and the Koran. It is only in the understanding of people in their reading of the Bible and the Gospels and the Koran.” (Neely’s history of the Parliament of religions and religious congresses at the World’s Columbian Exposition, p. 700)
It is unclear when or how he expressed his views to the church and how they responded. However, we can summarise what we do know from two interviews with the Archimandrite that we find in the American press:
“[He] came to the United States because of a serious difference of opinion concerning certain radical views he has, which were not only not shared but were severely condemned by the authorities of the orthodox Greek Church, notably by Spriridon, Archbishop and Metropolitan of Moscow. […] Concerning the action of the Greek Church authorities when he desired to ‘circulate such thoughts,’ he says: ‘It having been announced by me that I have these beliefs, I have lost the fruits of my labor during these and several preceding years, and my money and all I possess.’ Owing to ‘the absence of freedom to expound religious thoughts’ in Moscow, the Father came here […].” (The Sun, NY, 17 September 1893)
In another news piece it was reported that:
“It was while in the eastern capital of Russia that he first incurred the displeasure of the metropolitan of Moscow, who not only interdicted him from propagating his views, but showed even inclinations of persecution. As soon as he announced his beliefs, his personal effects, the fruits of many years of assiduous labors, were all confiscated or destroyed, and even his person was threatened.” (The Boston Globe, 18 March 1894)
Thus a rift was formed between Jabara and the church, leading us to our next destination, Chicago.
Chicago: Parliament of the World’s Religions 1893
It is widely speculated that Jabara went directly from Moscow to New York. Here he meets a fellow Syrian Christian, Ibrahim Khayr Allāh, who came to the US as a missionary of the Baha’i faith. His Egyptian friend Anṭūn Ḥaddād translated Jabara’s book Wifāq al-Adyān wa-Waḥdat al-Īmān fī al-Tawrāt wa-l-Injīl wa-l-Qurʾān into Unity in Faiths and Harmony in Religions, based on the Ordinances of the Old and New Testaments and the Koran. This book was read out at the Parliament of the World’s Religions in 1893 and published the same year. (Muḥammad ʿAbduh, pp. 93-94)
Whilst it remains a mystery how he heard of the conference or what made him attend, documents regarding the conference show us that Christopher Jabara remained a central and well-respected person in the religious circle of Chicago.
Leo D. Leferbure, a professor of theology at the University of St. Mary, writes in an article regarding the Parliament of Religions:
“One member of the Chicago press commented: ‘Those we are accustomed to call heathen are not so heathen as we thought. Under some lies the idea of God. Under all of them lies morality. What will the outcome be?’
“Many shared the mood of hope and optimism for an irenic future. At least one representative, Christophore Jibara, the archimandrite of the apostolic and patriarchal throne of the Orthodox Church in Syria, worried that the sheer presence of so many religions together could produce doubt against all their claims. To avoid this, Jibara urged that ‘a committee should be selected from the great religions to investigate the dogmas and to make a full and perfect comparison, and approving the true one and announcing it to the people.’ He was confident that this project would be ‘easy to do in America, and especially in Chicago’” (Prabuddha Bharata, July 1994, [periodical started by Swami Vivekananda])
Rev. Jenkin Lloyd Jones, the secretary of the Parliament of Religions 1893 and a fellow Unitarian introduced Christophore Jibara to the stage in the following words:
“Before the parliament was called to order in the morning, Jenkin Lloyd Jones introduced the archimandrite of the apostolic and patriarchal throne of the orthodox church in Syria-a man who attracted great attention owing to the peculiarity of his garb and appearance. He was always bareheaded and wore his hair in flowing locks, which reached half-way down his back. He had a full, dark beard, and a look in his eyes as if in constant meditation. In presenting the archimandrite, Mr. Jones said:
“He is a man with whom I have exhausted all the Arabic I can command, and he has exhausted all the English he can command, which is a little more than I can of Arabic, in getting acquainted […] He comes to us from the far-off church of Damascus […] He comes to us with a pamphlet which a friend […] has Englished out of the Arabic in which it was first written […] [and] bearing as its title, “Unity in Faith and Harmony in Religion”-a title which may justify your enthusiasm and respect […] I have looked into it enough to find myself surprised and delighted that away out there on the classic grounds of Damascus there is working the same spirit, a groping for the same result, as that which lies so close to the heart of this congress […] It is an honest, scholarly, and a labored attempt to discover the fundamental basis that underlie the three great monotheistic religions of the world, Judaism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism, and to find in the Old Testament and the New Testament and the Koran a certain fundamental revelation, which, being recognized, would meet largely the hunger of the human heart.” [Neely’s history of the Parliament of religions and religious congresses at the World’s Columbian Exposition, pp. 567-68.]
“A very curious paper, read by special favor, was that by Chistophore Jibara of Damascus, who styles himself Archimandrite of the Apostolic and Patriarchal Throne of the Orthodox Church in Syria and the whole East, which made a plea for the union of Christianity and Mohammedanism on the ground that the Gospels and the Koran are in agreement with each other, and can only be understood when read together! (The Congregationalist (Boston), 5 October 1893)
Cairo: Later life
There are more mentions and discussions regarding the Archimandrite that took place during 1893-94 whilst he was in America, but for the sake of brevity, I will not discuss them all. From what we know, Jabara travelled to Cairo and established a journal in 1895 entitled Shahādat al-ḥaqq (The Testimony of Truth). This is where he would propagate his ideas and spread his message of unification and other matters. (Muhammad ʿAbduh, p. 94)
Leaving America behind, he was still remembered by its people even after many years had passed since the conference had ended. John Henry Barrows (1847–1902) was an American clergyman of the First Presbyterian Church (Chicago) and Chairman of the 1893 General Committee on the Congress of Religions. He writes in Dr. Barrows in Egypt:
“Two other men, who were present at the parliament, I have unexpectedly met in Cairo. They were present at the Sunday services in the American mission. One of them is Christophora Jibara, formerly archimandrite of Damascus. He is still very active and earnest in what he deems his chief mission, persuading Christians to give up the doctrine of the Trinity, which prevents, as it seems to him, their coming into any union with Mohammedans and Jews. He believes that Christ is the Son of God and wrought a gospel of redemption. Jibara is master of several languages, and I tried in vain to persuade him to employ his powers of speech in preaching a positive gospel, instead of smiting all his life at a dogma which has worn out many hammers.” (Friends’ Intelligencer and Journal, 6 March 1897, Vol. 54, Issue 10)
Qadian: Hamamatul-Bushra
In 1893, whilst the world was searching for the truth in Chicago, Muhammad bin Ahmad Makki of Mecca, found it in Qadian, India. He joined the fold of Islam Ahmadiyyat that year and after returning to Mecca requested the Promised Messiahas for some books so that he might distribute them to his people. Hazrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmadas sent him a reply in Arabic that was published in book form for the benefit of the public. This book was given the title of Hamamatul-Bushra and though it was written in 1893 it was published in February 1894.
Hazrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the Promised Messiahas wrote two couplets on the title page of the book:
“Our dove flies with the wings of fondness and in its beak are the presents of peace – and it flies to the land of the Prophet who is our beloved lord, Chief of the Messengers and the best of creation.” (Hamamatul Bushra [The Harbinger of Good News], www.ahmadipedia.org)
Cairo: Khulasa-tul-Adyan
During his final years, Christopher Jabara was especially vocal regarding the subject of crucifixion and held a view that was contrary to all the other mainstream Abrahamic religions. So much so that both parties, Christians and Muslims, refused to bury him in their graveyards. (Taʿazin wa-Wafayat, al-Manar, p. 480)
For Jabara, the controversial issues of crucifixion and the status of Jesus were essential for the unity of the Abrahamic religions. (Muhammad ʿAbduh, p. 95)
This brings us to what we have been looking for, Khulasa-tul-Adyan, published in 1895 from Cairo, its full title being Khilaṣat al-Adyan wa-Zubdat al-Iman fī al-Tawrat wa-l-Injil wa-lQuran. This was the very book where Jabara presented his opinion regarding the crucifixion. Going back to the clues the Promised Messiahas gave us, it all comes together.
“*Christopher Jabara, a Christian writer of Damascus, refers to my book. The Hammat-ul-Bushra, on p. 44 of his work, The Khulasat-ul-Adyan. He also quotes six lines from my book and writes: ‘This is the work of an Indian learned man who is known throughout India.’ See Khulasat-ul-Adyan; p. 44, [Lines] 14 to 21.” (The Pioneer, 29 October 1899, p. 7)
Here is Khulasat-ul-Adyan page 44 and as we look at lines 14 to 21, we read:
“One of the renowned Islamic scholars from the regions of India said the following in the book “Tawq al-Hamama” [Hamamatul-Bushra]:
“The word tawaffa is mentioned in the Quran with the meaning of ‘entrusting’ and ‘taking the soul’. The second interpreter is the Messenger of Allah, peace be upon him. The third interpreter is Abu Bakr al-Siddiq. The fourth interpreter is Ibn Abbas. The fifth interpreter is a group of the Tabi’un (the generation after the companions). The sixth interpreter is Imam al-Bukhari. The seventh interpreter is the Imam of the scholars of hadith, Ibn al-Qayyim. The eighth interpreter is the scholar of his time, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi.
“This scholar, in his book, affirms the death of our master, Jesus (Isa), truly and factually, and his being raised to the heavens, with no second death for him.”
After these words, Jabara challenged the Islamic scholars of Egypt regarding the crucifixion. He did not just limit himself to words, but would personally visit the Grand Mufti and question him too. In his eulogy, Rashid Rida, the editor of al-Manar writes:
“The deceased was a Unitarian, who used to argue that there is nothing in the Bible or the epistles of the apostles that indicates the doctrine of the Trinity. He believed in Allah, His angels, His books, His messengers, and the Day of Judgment. He also believed in the Quran and in the prophethood of our master, Muhammadsa. One of the matters on which he disagreed with Muslims was the issue of the crucifixion of Christ. He interpreted the verse, “whereas they slew him not, nor crucified him, but he was made to appear to them like one crucified” [Quran 4:158] in a manner that differed from the common interpretation.
“In summary, his call aligned with the objectives of Islam, but he lacked the Islamic knowledge and the understanding of sociology and ethics necessary to establish strong arguments in debates against those who opposed him.
“He sought a fatwa [religious ruling] from the Mufti of Egypt regarding his belief, expressing his faith in the prophethood of our master Muhammad and his truthfulness in everything he brought. The Mufti responded by stating that his Islam would only be acknowledged if he did not deny any matters known from the religion by necessity. He came to me and said, ‘I did not understand the meaning of this phrase.’” (Taʿazin wa-Wafayat, al-Manar, p. 480)
Conclusion: “Our dove flies…”
After this search, I am left in submission to Allah the Almighty and in awe of his prophet. How much is hidden within each line of his works? They are filled to the brim with proof of a living God. For only He can enhance a few strokes of ink with so many blessings. My mind wanders back to the couplet on the title page of Hamatul Bushra:
“Our dove flies with the wings of fondness and in its beak are the presents of peace – and it flies to the land of the Prophet who is our beloved lord, Chief of the Messengers and the best of creation.”
Eulogy of Christopher Jabara by Rashid Rida
“I express my condolences on the passing of Christopher Jabara, the renowned man who, years ago, had the firm belief that the happiness of humanity could only be achieved through the unity of the followers of the three Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
“This idea began as a mere thought, but it later grew into a deeply held conviction, taking full control of him and motivating him to advocate for it through both speech and writing. He first established a newspaper called Testimony of the Truth, through which he spread his message, including during the Chicago Exhibition and other venues in America. He wrote lengthy letters to well-known religious scholars in the East, while he was residing in far-off America in the West. Later, he came to Egypt, where he authored many books and letters in which he sought to reconcile the Torah, the Bible, and the Qur’an.
“The Orthodox Church excommunicated him, despite him having reached the rank of Archimandrite in their priestly hierarchy. Similarly, the Muslims met him with ridicule and mockery, and he endured the hardship that often befalls those who call people to something contrary to their established beliefs.
“The deceased was a Unitarian, who used to argue that there is nothing in the Bible or the epistles of the apostles that indicates the doctrine of the Trinity. He believed in Allah, His angels, His books, His messengers, and the Day of Judgment. He also believed in the Qur’an and in the prophethood of our master, Muhammadsa. One of the matters on which he disagreed with Muslims was the issue of the crucifixion of Christ. He interpreted the verse, “whereas they slew him not, nor crucified him, but he was made to appear to them like one crucified” [Quran 4:158] in a manner that differed from the common interpretation.
“In summary, his call aligned with the objectives of Islam, but he lacked the Islamic knowledge and the understanding of sociology and ethics necessary to establish strong arguments in debates against those who opposed him.”
“He sought a fatwa [religious ruling] from the Mufti of Egypt regarding his belief, expressing his faith in the prophethood of our master Muhammad and his truthfulness in everything he brought. The Mufti responded by stating that his Islam would only be acknowledged if he did not deny any matters known from the religion by necessity. He came to me and said, ‘I did not understand the meaning of this phrase.’
“The deceased fell ill, recovered slightly, but then relapsed. When he sensed the intensity of his illness, he came to me and said, ‘Since I came to Egypt, I have not met a merciful man who does good without ulterior motives, except for the honorable Mufti. Now I am in urgent need of a certain amount of money to either enter the hospital or travel, and my soul is dear to me. I hope you can ask the honorable professor for the mentioned amount.’
“I replied with readiness and obedience. The professor, may Allah protect him, supported him with twice the amount he requested. He first entered Al-Qasr al-Aini hospital with the help of one dignitary, and later entered the Austrian hospital with the assistance of another dignitary, where he passed away due to heart disease.
“Since the man was no longer counted among the Christians due to his excommunication by their highest authority, and he was not recognised as a Muslim because he did not fully adhere to all their beliefs, the issue of his burial became problematic. This problem was resolved by some clever Christians, who testified before the Patriarch that the deceased had confessed and returned to the Orthodox Church before his death, so he was given an Orthodox burial. They also took possession of his books, which contained strong rebuttals against them.
“As for the true state of his affairs and what will happen to him in the hereafter, that is left to the knowledge and mercy of the All-Knowing, Most Merciful.” (Taʿazin wa-Wafayat, al-Manar, pp. 479-480)
